• Representatives of 10 phyla removed significant quantities of glycine from solution during an observation period of 16 to 24 hrs (Stephens and Schinske 1961)
• Glycine is not essential nutritional amino acid for prawns (Cowey and Forster 1971)
• Most abundant DFAA in southern California coastal waters (Clark et al 1972, Carlucci et a 1984)
• Bivalve Mytilus edulis has very high glycine uptake rate (Péquignat 1973, Jørgensen 1983)
• Glycine was not able to elicit feeding response in a stony coral Montastrea cavernosa (Lehman and Porter 1973)
• Glycine evoked opening but not food ingestion in sea anemone Anthopleura midorii (Nagai and Nagai 1973)
• Glycine is found in very large amounts in the skeleton of gorgonians and anthipatharians (Goldberg 1976)
• Many symbiotic bacteria in sponges can utilize glycine (Wilkinson 1978)
• Phytoplankton can use glycine as a sole nitrogen source but only when glycine is present in very large concentration (>2.5 mM) (Berland et al 1979)
• Polychaete Nereis virens is able to use glycine and together with some other amino acids may contribute 7-12% of the metabolism (Jørgensen 1979)
• Uptake by natural heterotrophic bacterial population was rapid (Iturriaga and Zsolnay 1981, Donderski et al 1998)
• Mussel larvae (Mytilus edulis) can effectively compete for glycine with an equivalent biomass of bacteria taken from their natural environment (Manahan and Richardson 1983)
• Together with aspartate most abundant amino acid in fixed carbon pool of light incubated soft coral Capnella gaboensi (Farrant et al 1987)
• One of the most abundant amino acid of shell matrix fraction of bivalve Crassostrea virginica (Wheeler et al 1988)
• Brooded embryos of the ophiuroid Amphipholis squamata, nonfeeding trochophore stage of the annelid Neanthes arenaceodentata and lecithotrophic larvae of the red abalone Haliotis rufescens can feed by taking up glycine directly from seawater (Jaeckle and Manahan 1989)
• Some marine phytoplankton is not able to efficiently utilize glycine (Palenik and Morel 1990)
• Glycine is by far the most abundant amino acid in organic matrix of gorgonian Leptogorgia virgulata (Kingsley et al 1990)
• Ambient concentration in reef waters 2.6 – 43.2 nM (0.000195 – 0.00324 mg/l) (Ferrier 1991). Similar amounts found also by Sommerville and Preston (2001) and Hoeegh-Guldberg and Williamson (1999),
• Glycine is most abundant amino acid in skeleton of Antipathes fiordensis (Cnidaria, Antipatharia) (Goldberg 1991)
• Glycine is easily released from sediments by enzymic activity and might thus be a nutrient source for deposit feeders (Mayer et al 1995)
• Glycine is among the most abundant amino acids in Pocillopora damicornis (Gates et a 1995, see also Bock 2008)
• Part of larval attachment inductor for sedentary polychaetes (Harder and Qian 1999)
• Glycine, together with Asx, is most abundant amino acid in coral reef detritus and algae (Crossman et al 2001, Crossman et al 2005)
• Glycine was one of more abundant components of DCAA in marine sediments and was utilized effectively by anaerobic bacteria (Guldberg et al 2002)
• Glycine is elevated in the organic matrix of hard corals (Ingalls et al 2003, Gupta et al 2006)
• Macroalgae are able to utilize glycine (Tyler et al 2005)
• Glycine is the most successful feeding attractant for post-larval spiny lobster (Williams 2007)
• Uptake rate was relatively slow for Stylophora pistillata (Grover et al 2008)

Berland et al. Concentration Requirement of Glycine as Nitrogen Source for Supporting Effective Growth of Certain Marine Microplanktonic Algae. Mar Biol (1979)

Bock. The Control of Carbon Translocation in a Sea Anemone-dinoflagellate Symbiosis from New Zealand. Victoria University of Wellington (2008)

Carlucci et al. Diel Production and Microheterotrophic Utilization of Dissolved Free Amino Acids in Waters Off Southern California. APPL. ENVIRON. MICROBIOL. (1984)

Clark et al. Dissolved Free Amino Acids in Southern California Coastal Waters. Limnol. Oceanogr. (1972)

Cowey and Forster. The essential amino-acid requirements of the prawn Palaemon serratus. The growth of prawns on diets containing proteins of different amino-acid compositions. Mar Biol (1971)

Crossman et al. Detritus as Food for Grazing Fishes on Coral Reefs. Limnol. Oceanogr (2001)

Crossman et al. Nutritional ecology of nominally herbivorous fishes on coral reefs. Mar Ecol Prog Ser (2005)

Donderski et al. Utilization of Low Molecular Weight Organic Compounds by Marine Neustonic and Planktonic Bacteria. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies (1998)

Farrant et al. Nutrition of the temperate Australian soft coral Capnella gaboensis. Mar Biol (1987)

Ferrier. Net uptake of dissolved free amino acids by four scleractinian corals. Coral Reefs (1991)

Gates et al. Free amino acids exhibit anthozoan “host factor” activity: they induce the release of photosynthate from symbiotic dinoflagellates in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA (1995) vol. 92 (16) pp. 7430-4

Goldberg. Chemistry and structure of skeletal growth rings in the black coral Antipathes fiordensis (Cnidaria, Antipatharia). Hydrobiologia (1991)

Goldberg. Comparative study of the chemistry and structure of gorgonian and antipatharian coral skeletons. Mar Biol (1976)

Grover et al. Uptake of dissolved free amino acids by the scleractinian coral Stylophora pistillata. J Exp Biol (2008) vol. 211 (Pt 6) pp. 860-5

Guldberg et al. Utilization of Marine Sedimentary Dissolved Organic Nitrogen by Native Anaerobic Bacteria. Limnol. Oceanogr (2002)

Gupta et al. Aspartic acid concentrations in coral skeletons as recorders of past disturbances of metabolic rates. Coral Reefs (2006) vol. 25 (4) pp. 599-606

Harder and Qian. Induction of larval attachment and metamorphosis in the serpulid polychaete Hydroides elegans by dissolved free amino acids: isolation and identification. Mar Ecol Prog Ser (1999)

Hoeegh-Guldberg and Williamson. Availability of two forms of dissolved nitrogen to the coral Pocillopora damicornis and its symbiotic zooxanthellae. Mar Biol (1999)

Ingalls et al. Preservation of organic matter in mound-forming coral skeletons. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta (2003)

Iturriaga and Zsolnay. Transformation of some dissolved organic compounds by a natural heterotrophic population. Mar Biol (1981)

Jaeckle and Manahan. Feeding by a “nonfeeding” larva: uptake of dissolved amino acids from seawater by lecithotrophic larvae of the gastropod Haliotis rufescens. Mar Biol (1989)

Jørgensen. Patterns of uptake of dissolved amino acids in mussels (Mytilus edulis). Mar Biol (1983)

Jørgensen. Uptake of L-valine and other amino acids by the polychaete Nereis virens. Mar Biol (1979)

Kingsley et al. Collagen in the spicule organic matrix of the gorgonian Leptogorgia virgulata. Biol Bull (1990) vol. 179 pp. 207-13

Lehman and Porter. Chemical Activation Of Feeding In The Caribbean Reef-Building Coral Montastrea Cavernosa. Biol Bull (1973)

Manahan and Richardson. Competition studies on the uptake of dissolved organic nutrients by bivalve larvae (Mytilus edulis) and marine bacteria. Mar Biol (1983)

Mayer et al. Bioavailable Amino Acids in Sediments: A Biomimetic, Kinetics-Based Approach. Limnol. Oceanogr. (1995)

Nagai and Nagai. Feeding factors for the sea anemone Anthopleura midorii. Mar Biol (1973)

Palenik and Morel. Amino Acid Utilization by Marine Phytoplankton: A Novel Mechanism. Limnol. Oceanogr. (1990)

Péquignat. A Kinetic and Autoradiographic Study of the Direct Assimilation of Amino Acids and Glucose by Organs of the Mussel Mytilus edulis. Mar Biol (1973)

Sommerville and Preston. Characterisation of dissolved combined amino acids in marine waters. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. (2001) vol. 15 (15) pp. 1287-1290

Stephens and Schinske. Uptake of Amino Acids by Marine Invertebrates. Limnol. Oceanogr. (1961)

Tyler et al. Uptake of urea and amino acids by the macroalgae Ulva lactuca (Chlorophyta) and Gracilaria vermiculophylla (Rhodophyta). Mar Ecol Prog Ser (2005)

Wheeler et al. Regulation of in vitro and in vivo CaCO3 crystallization by fractions of oyster shell organic matrix. Mar Biol (1988)

Wilkinson. Microbial associations in sponges. II. Numerical analysis of sponge and water bacterial populations. Mar Biol (1978)

Williams. Feeds development for post-larval spiny lobster: A review. Bull. Fish. Res. Agen. No (2007)

Related posts:

1. Amino acids and reef aquarium: Glutamic acid
2. Amino acids and reef aquarium: Arginine
3. Amino acids and reef aquarium: Alanine

• Glutamic acid was very successful feeding activator for stony coral Montastrea cavernosa, causing full envelopment on every trial (Lehman and Porter 1973)
• One of the predominant amino acids in costal surface water and has high heterotrophic turnover rate (Williams et al 1976)
• Main contributor to the bacterial intracellular amino acid pool, may compete with nitrate uptake (Stanley and Brown 1976)
• Labeled Glutamic acid shows bacterial and not phytoplankton uptake (Hollibaugh 1976)
• Glutamate is an excellent growth media for diatoms (heterotrophic growth) (Lewin and Hellebust 1978)
• Very high uptake by heterotrophic bacteria (75% uptake after 4h) (Iturriaga and Zsolnay 1981, Donderski et al 1998)
• Glutamate is an important part of ammonia assimilation (for example Anderson and Burris 1987 , Catmull et al. 1987, Dudler and Miller 1988, McAuley and Cook 1994, Roberts et al 1999, Teugels et al 2008)
• Glutamic acid concentration in surface (10 cm) water of temperate bay was 3-11 nM (0.00044 – 0.0016 mg/l). Major component of DFAA (Carlucci et al 1991)
• Glutamic acid is thought to be a precursor in synthesis of proline and is present in relatively large amounts in prawn muscle tissue (Smith and Dall 1991)
• Significant amounts of glutamate was present after carbon fixation by isolated zooxanthellae (Streamer et al 1993)
• Glutamic acid is easily released from sediments by enzymic activity and might thus be a nutrient source for deposit feeders (Mayer et al 1995)
• Glutamic acid is the direct precursor of several other amino acids via the tricarboxylic acid cycle, from where, like glucose, its carbon atoms have a high probability of being incorporated into newly synthesized amino acids (Fitzgerald and Szmant 1997)
• Ammonium is assimilated by zooxanthellae into glutamate in Aiptasia pulchella (Swanson and Hoeegh-Guldberg 1998)
• Part of larval attachment inductor for sedentary polychaetes (Harder and Qian 1999)
• Glutamic acid significantly increased bacterial abundance, modified the bacterial community structures on the biofilms, and elevated the inductive effect of the biofilms (Jin and Qian 2005)

Anderson and Burris. Role of glutamine synthetase in ammonia assimilation by symbiotic marine dinoflagellates (zooxanthellae). Mar Biol (1987)

Carlucci et al. Microbial populations in surface films and subsurface waters: Amino acid metabolism and growth. Mar Biol (1991)

Catmull et al. NADP+-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase from Acropora formosa: purification and properties. Mar Biol (1987)

Donderski et al. Utilization of Low Molecular Weight Organic Compounds by Marine Neustonic and Planktonic Bacteria. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies (1998)

Dudler and Miller. Characterization of two glutamate dehydrogenases from the symbiotic microalga Symbiodinium microadriaticum isolated from the coral Acropora formosa. Mar Biol (1988)

Fitzgerald and Szmant. Biosynthesis of ‘essential’ amino acids by scleractinian corals. Biochem J (1997) vol. 322 ( Pt 1) pp. 213-21

Hollibaugh. The Biological Degradation of Arginine and Glutamic Acid in Seawater in Relation to the Growth of Phytoplankton. Marine Biology (1976)

Iturriaga and Zsolnay. Transformation of some dissolved organic compounds by a natural heterotrophic population. Mar Biol (1981)

Jin and Qian. Amino acid exposure modulates the bioactivity of biofilms for larval settlement of Hydroides elegans by altering bacterial community components. Mar Ecol Prog Ser (2005)

Jin and Qian. Amino acid exposure modulates the bioactivity of biofilms for larval settlement of Hydroides elegans by altering bacterial community components. Marine Ecology Progress Series (2005)

Lehman and Porter. Chemical Activation Of Feeding In The Caribbean Reef-Building Coral Montastrea Cavernosa. The Biological Bulletin (1973)

Lewin and Hellebust. Utilization of Glutamate and Glucose for Heterotrophic Growth by the Marine Pennate Diatom Nitzschia laevis. Mar Biol (1978)

Mayer et al. Bioavailable Amino Acids in Sediments: A Biomimetic, Kinetics-Based Approach. Limnol. Oceanogr. (1995)

McAuley and Cook. Effects of host feeding and dissolved ammonium on cell division and nitrogen status of zooxanthellae in the hydroid Myrionema amboinense. Mar Biol (1994)

Roberts et al. Primary site and initial products of ammonium assimilation in the symbiotic sea anemone Anemonia viridis. Mar Biol (1999)

Smith and Dall. Metabolism of proline by the tiger prawn Penaeus esculentus. Mar Biol (1991)

Stanley and Brown. Inorganic Nitrogen Metabolism in Marine Bacteria: The Intracellular Free Amino Acid Pools of a Marine Pseudomonad. Marine Biology (1976)

Streamer et al. Photosynthetic carbon dioxide fixation in zooxanthellae. Mar Biol (1993)

Swanson and Hoeegh-Guldberg. Amino acid synthesis in the symbiotic sea anemone Aiptasia pulchella. Mar Biol (1998)

Teugels et al. Kleptoplasts mediate nitrogen acquisition in the sea slug Elysia viridis. Aquat Biol (2008) vol. 4 (1) pp. 15-21

Williams et al. Amino acid uptake and respiration by marine heterotrophs. Marine Biology (1976)

Related posts:

1. Amino acids and reef aquarium: Aspartic acid
2. Amino acids and reef aquarium: Arginine
3. Amino acids and reef aquarium: Alanine

Related posts:

1. Amino acids and reef aquarium: Alanine
2. Amino acids and reef aquarium: Aspartic acid
3. Amino acids and reef aquarium: Arginine

• Important carbon source for some bacteria strains (Macleod et al. 1954, Berland et al. 1970)
• Aspartic acid is not an essential amino acid for crustaceans (Cowey and Forster 1971)
• As a DFAA reduced in surface water but found in much more larger amount in bottom and interstitial water (Clark et al. 1972)
• Causes a slight feeding response in a stony coral (Lehman and Porter 1973)
• Large contributor to DFAA in natural waters and is utilized effectively in water column (Williams et al. 1976)
• Heterotrophic microflagellates release Aspartic acid while feeding on bacteria (Andersson et al. 1985)
• Starved prawns utilize proline to synthesize aspartic acid to a greater extent than did the fed prawns (Smith and Dall 1991)
• One of most suitable carbon sources for planktonic bacteria (Donderski et al 1998)
• Very important part of organic matrix in stony corals and other organisms. Limiting factor in calcification, heterotrophic sources important (Allemand et al. 2001, Houlbreque et al 2004, Gupta et al 2006)
• One of the amino acids detected in zooxanthellae after ammonium enrichment in symbiotic anemone (Roberts et al 1999)
• Part of larval attachment inductor for sedentary polychaetes (Harder and Qian 1999)
• Aspartic acid significantly increase bacterial abundance, modified bacterial community structures on the biofilms, and elevated the inductive effect of the biofilms (Jin and Qian 2005)

Allemand et al. Organic matrix synthesis in the scleractinian coral stylophora pistillata: role in biomineralization and potential target of the organotin tributyltin. The Journal of experimental biology (1998) vol. 201 (Pt 13) pp. 2001-9

Andersson et al. Release of amino acids and inorganic nutrients by heterotropic marine microflagellates. Marine Ecology Progress Series (1985)

Berland et al. Study of bacteria associated with marine algae in culture. Marine Biology (1970)

Clark et al. Dissolved Free Amino Acids in Southern California Coastal Waters. Limnology and oceanography (1972)

Cowey and Forster. The essential amino-acid requirements of the prawn Palaemon serratus. The growth of prawns on diets containing proteins of different amino-acid compositions. Marine Biology (1971)

Donderski et al. Utilization of Low Molecular Weight Organic Compounds by Marine Neustonic and Planktonic Bacteria. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies (1998)

Gupta et al. Aspartic acid concentrations in coral skeletons as recorders of past disturbances of metabolic rates. Coral reefs (2006) vol. 25 (4) pp. 599-606

Harder and Qian. Induction of larval attachment and metamorphosis in the serpulid polychaete Hydroides elegans by dissolved free amino acids: isolation and identification. Marine ecology progress series (1999)

Houlbreque et al. Interactions between zooplankton feeding, photosynthesis and skeletal growth in the scleractinian coral Stylophora pistillata. The Journal of experimental biology (2004) vol. 207 (Pt 9) pp. 1461-9

Jin and Qian. Amino acid exposure modulates the bioactivity of biofilms for larval settlement of Hydroides elegans by altering bacterial community components. Marine Ecology Progress Series (2005)

Lehman and Porter. Chemical Activation Of Feeding In The Caribbean Reef-Building Coral Montastrea Cavernosa. The Biological Bulletin (1973)

Macleod et al. Nutrition and metabolism of marine bacteria. I. Survey of nutritional requirements. Journal of bacteriology (1954) vol. 68 (6) pp. 680-6

Roberts et al. Primary site and initial products of ammonium assimilation in the symbiotic sea anemone Anemonia viridis. Marine Biology (1999)

Smith and Dall. Metabolism of proline by the tiger prawn Penaeus esculentus. Marine Biology (1991)

Williams et al. Amino acid uptake and respiration by marine heterotrophs. Marine Biology (1976)

Related posts:

1. Amino acids and reef aquarium: Glutamic acid
2. Amino acids and reef aquarium: Alanine
3. Amino acids and reef aquarium: Arginine

• Arginine is essential amino acid for crustaceans, it cannot be synthesized by themselves (Cowey and Forster 1971).
• Arginine causes feeding response (including digestion) in stony coral but has a significantly delayed response (1-2 minutes). Activity is confined to the mouth region (Lehman and Porter 1973)
• Arginine is a major contributor to copepod and mysid free amino acid pools (Lehman and Porter 1973)
• Arginine is recycled mainly through heterotrophic organisms and not directly used by phytoplankton in pelagic environment (Hollibaugh 1976)
• Arginine uptake and marine by heterotrophic bacteria is fast and efficient (Iturriaga and Zsolnay 1981)
• Arginine uptake system is shared with Lysine in marine diatom (Flynn and Syrett 1986)
• Optimum growth rate in a shrimp was obtained with Arginine concentration of 25 g/kg. Arginine was supplied in a microencapsulated form. Arginine in crystalline form is not usable to shrimp. (Chen et al. 1992)
• Arginine can not be synthesized by fish, molluscs or nematodes and has weak signal in corals (Fitzgerald and Szmant 1997)
• In Pocillopora damicornis Arginine uptake is very high (Hoeegh-Guldberg and Williamson 1999)
• Arginine is translocated from zooxanthellae to host in Tridacna gigas (Shepherd et al. 1999)
• Arginine can make up to 9% of the total DFAA in seawater (Pan and Wang 2004)
• Mussels have high affinity for dissolved Arginine but it’s uptake is slow (Pan and Wang 2004)
• Arginine is an important part of sponge silica uptake and thus spicule formation (Perovic-Ottstadt et al. 2005)

Chen et al. Quantification of arginine requirements of juvenile marine shrimp, Penaeus monodon, using microencapsulated arginine. Marine Biology (1992)

Fitzgerald and Szmant. Biosynthesis of ‘essential’ amino acids by scleractinian corals. The Biochemical journal (1997) vol. 322 ( Pt 1) pp. 213-21

Flynn and Syrett. Characteristics of the uptake system for L-lysine and L-arginine in Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Marine Biology (1986)

Hoeegh-Guldberg and Williamson. Availability of two forms of dissolved nitrogen to the coral Pocillopora damicornis and its symbiotic zooxanthellae. Marine Biology (1999)

Hollibaugh. The Biological Degradation of Arginine and Glutamic Acid in Seawater in Relation to the Growth of Phytoplankton. Marine Biology (1976)

Iturriaga and Zsolnay. Transformation of some dissolved organic compounds by a natural heterotrophic population. Marine Biology (1981)

Lehman and Porter. Chemical Activation Of Feeding In The Caribbean Reef-Building Coral Montastrea Cavernosa. The Biological Bulletin (1973)

Pan and Wang. Differential uptake of dissolved and particulate organic carbon by the marine mussel Perna viridis. Limnology and oceanography (2004)

Perovic-Ottstadt et al. Arginine kinase in the demosponge Suberites domuncula: regulation of its expression and catalytic activity by silicic acid. Journal of Experimental Biology (2005)

Shepherd et al. Ammonium, but not nitrate, stimulates an increase in glutamine concentration in the haemolymph of Tridacna gigas. Marine Biology (1999)

Related posts:

1. Amino acids and reef aquarium: Alanine
2. Amino acids and reef aquarium: Aspartic acid
3. Amino acids and reef aquarium: Glutamic acid